EXOa
Exodus
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Canonical and Historical Context: Who’s on stage?
If we think of the biblical “books” as a single volume anthology with a Table of Contents, we should regard the book of Exodus as "Chapter 1" and the book of Genesis as the “Prologue.”
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As the Pentateuch is told from a Yahwistic perspective, Exodus forms the first chapter while Genesis sets the stage as a prologue.
The defining moments of God’s formation of the people and their “constitution” lie in the book of Exodus, wherein God defines his role as Savior and binds himself to them in a legal contract. There he divulges to them his personal name, Yahweh, and his plan and values. In many respects, the book of Genesis sets the stage for these foundational events.
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Outline and Key Passages
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1–18 Egypt and exodus
1 Transition from Genesis: Pharaoh enslaves the Hebrews
2 Moses’ early years
3–4 Dialogue of Yahweh and Moses at the burning bush
5–6 Bricks without straw and the second dialogue
7–10 Moses’ confrontations with Pharaoh and the nine plagues
11–15 Passover and the exodus from Egypt
16–18 Murmurings en route to Sinai
19–40 Sinai and covenant
19 Narrative: Arrival at Sinai
20–23 Covenant Code
24 Narrative: Covenant ceremony
25–31 Instructions for the tabernacle and priesthood
32–34 Narrative: Golden Calf
35–40 Instructions for the tabernacle and priestly garments
The book of Exodus falls into two distinct parts. The first consists primarily of narrative material where Moses is the central character, especially in his private dialogues with Yahweh, his advocacy before Pharaoh in the plague narrative and his agency at the Reed Sea deliverance. Regulations regarding the Passover ritual interrupt the story about the tenth, climactic plague. The narrative in the second half recounts the arrival at Mount Sinai and the covenant ceremony between Yahweh and the people. After Moses’ 40-day absence on the mountain, the people worship a golden calf (or young bull), provoking a crisis which is resolved during Moses’ third dialogue with Yahweh. Interwoven with these narratives are the laws of the Covenant Code and the instructions for the construction of the tabernacle and the priestly garments.
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Situation and Message: What’s at Stake?
Exodus provides little historical information, such as the identity of Pharaoh and the location of Sinai.
Given the importance of the Hebrews’ exodus out from bondage in Egypt, it seems odd that the Bible gives little historical information when it took place. Nor are we certain of the geographic location of Mt. Sinai.
Throughout the book of Exodus “Pharaoh” is unnamed—in contrast to the later historical narratives in 1–2 Kings (Pharaoh Shishak is named in 1 Kgs 11:40; 14:25, Tirhakah in 2 Kgs 19:9, and Neco in 2 Kgs 23:29–35). (The difference may lie in the existence of a scribal class, employed by the monarchy, that records detailed, written accounts of historic events.
This observation may imply therefore that the book of Exodus contains “prehistoric” material, that is, oral traditions.) We may be given a hint in Exodus 1:11, which records that the Hebrews were enslaved to build “for Pharaoh store cities, Pithom and Raamses.” Ramesses II ruled Egypt in the 13th century BCE, a time that accords with other historical data. Indeed, an official of Ramesses II instructs the foreman at Pi-Ramesses: “Distribute grain rations to the soldiers and to the Apiru who transport stones to the great pylon of Ramesses” (Leiden Papyrus 348).
The historicity of the exodus is certainly an important question, but its details are best investigated in connection with the conquest and settlement of the land, which is narrated in the book of Joshua.
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The Hebrews in Egypt and the Exodus (Exod 1–18)
As we flip the page from the book of Genesis to the book of Exodus, we leap some 200–400 years in history. The book of Genesis closes with Joseph’s promising words: “God will indeed attend to you and bring you from this land [of Egypt] to the land that he swore to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob” (Gen 50:24). The book of Exodus opens with a list of Jacob’s sons who migrated to Egypt in the closing chapters of the book of Genesis (Exod 1:1–6).
Between Genesis and Exodus there are centuries of silence, and the transitional link in Exodus 1 is brief and gives no theological reason for the oppression of the Hebrews.
The transitional narrative covering the intervening centuries is very brief: Israel’s descendants multiplied and “there arose a new king over Egypt who did not know Joseph” (Exod 1:8). As we saw the book of Genesis, the editors of these biblical books have compiled traditions that were originally separate. The Bible does not present us with an unbroken chain of stories from one generation to the next.
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While the book of Exodus headlines God’s intervention in liberating his people from slavery in Egypt, it does not provide any insight as to why he allowed his people to fall into slavery in the first place. The reasons given for Pharaoh’s oppression of the Hebrews are entirely historical and social, not theological (Exod 1:8–22). As the new Pharaoh felt no loyalty to Jacob’s descendants, he exploited them for fear they might ally with Egypt’s enemies.
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Info Box: Ancient Biblical Manuscripts with Different Chronologies
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According to the Hebrew Masoretic Text (MT), "the dwelling of the sons of Israel in which they dwelt in Egypt was 430 years" (Exod 12:40). But according to the Greek Septuagint (LXX), the 430 year period marks their stay "in the land of Canaan and in the land of Egypt," thus including both the Ancestors’ sojourns in Canaan and Egypt (Gen 12–50) and the Hebrews' residence in Egypt (Exod 1-12).
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While reading the Bible, we must observe both contents and form. The dialogues between Moses and Yahweh are telling about how Yahweh interacts with people. Verbs drive the plot and character development.
The dialogues between Moses and Yahweh (Exod 3–4; 6). The first half of the book of Exodus is ultimately about the Hebrews’ oppression and liberation from the land of Egypt, but—like a good movie—the biblical narratives personalize the story by placing the figure of Moses center stage, along with his antagonist, Pharaoh.
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Particular focus is given to the dialogues between Moses and Yahweh and secondarily to the confrontations between Moses and Pharaoh. This is not simply a historical account of a people’s socioeconomic liberation. It includes insights on the divine-human encounter, especially concerning intercession and negotiation. Arguably, the most significant conversation of the whole Bible is the “burning bush” dialogue (Exod 3:1–4:17). Strange as it might sound, the instrument by which God manifests his presence (as “the angel of Yahweh”) is a mere bush, a briar/bramble bush in particular. Perhaps not coincidentally, its name in Hebrew, seneh, is very similar to that of the sacred mountain Sinai (siÌ‚nay).
Mosaic of Moses at the Burning Bush (St. Catherine's Monastery)
As sacred literature, readers must consider not only the Bible’s contents but also its literary form. In addition to what is said we should respect how it is said. Some of the OT’s most profound and foundational theological disclosures occur in dialogue, even where the human figure initiates the conversation with a prompting question. In fact, we would not know God’s personal name, Yahweh, were it not for Moses’ inquiry. Theology—in the Hebrew Bible—is often delivered through dialogue, not simply through monologue, decree, or pronouncement. Divine revelation is not simply dropped from heaven; it is a tapestry woven with divine and human threads.
After summoning Moses, God identifies himself by the old epithet, the God of the ancestors: “I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” (3:6).
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And Yahweh said, “I have indeed seen the affliction of my people in Egypt and their cry I have heard on account of their taskmasters because I know their pains. And I have come down to deliver them from the hand of Egypt and to bring them up from that land to a good and spacious land … (Exod 3:7-8, J)
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And now the outcry of Israelites has come to me and I have also seen the oppression with which the Egyptians are oppressing them. And now go so I may send you to Pharaoh and bring my people the Israelites out from Egypt (Exod 3:9-10, E).
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Exodus 3:7–10 exemplifies how the Hebrew Bible packages its theology: it does so through narrative and verbs, as distinct from systematic theology, which does so through theological discourse and nouns and adjectives. God is not described by concepts and states of being, but rather as a literary character in action. While he is not explicitly defined here as omniscient, he sees, hears, and knows. While he is not identified as omnipotent, he will deliver his people from the greatest superpower of that time. Moreover, with the splicing together of these originally separate strands, the editor has formed an echo, similar to Hebrew poetic parallelism. But God does not simply repeat himself between verses 8 and 10: we see a profound juxtaposition of divine sovereignty and human agency.
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At the burning bush God does not shun questions and objections. Evidently, God's messengers are best suited when they are not simply passive recipients of divine instructions but are eager partners in conversation. We also observe the Bible's honesty regarding the frailty of its "heroes."
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Moses raises four objections to God's plan, to which God responds with promises, not anger.
At the burning bush Moses raises four objections to God’s plan and in particular to his choice of agent. Each time God responds, not with rebuke or frustration, but with a new reality of faith. The first and last raise questions about Moses’ personal qualifications. First, Moses expresses doubts about his social position: "Who am I that I should go to Pharaoh, and bring the Israelites out of Egypt?" (emphasis mine).
While this is directly a question about Moses, he also implicitly questions God's choice of agent. God's response is telling: "I will be with you.” He sidesteps the issue of Moses’ self-identity and makes no attempts to bolster his self-esteem. Instead, he simply draws Moses’ attention to God's presence with him. He is the factor that makes all the difference.
In his fourth objection, Moses raises doubts about his personal competence: "O my Lord, I have never been eloquent, neither in the past nor even now that you have spoken to your servant; but I am slow of speech and slow of tongue” (Exod 4:10). Once again, Yahweh ignores the issue of Moses' talents or lack thereof, and points back to himself: "Who gives speech to mortals? Who makes them mute or deaf, seeing or blind? Is it not I, the LORD? Now go, and I will be with your mouth and teach you what you are to speak” (Exod 4:11-12).
After this fourth objection Moses says, "O my Lord, please send someone else.” It is this final dodge that kindles "the anger of the Lord" against Moses.
To his earlier questions and concerns Yahweh responded with greater theological revelation, but this final evasion Yahweh answers with anger. Yahweh is certainly open to hearing doubts and hesitations, but the refusal of one’s will is another matter. As a concession, Yahweh appoints Aaron as spokesperson (Exod 4:14-16).
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During the conversation God enigmatically reveals his personal name, Yahweh, which is forever associated with the exodus deliverance.
Moses's second and third hesitations concern the likely response of his fellow Hebrews in Egypt and their doubts about this divine visitation. His second question, conveniently put in their mouth, probes the level of Moses' intimacy with this God: "If I come to the Israelites and say to them, 'The God of your ancestors has sent me to you,' and they ask me, 'What is his name?' what shall I say to them?" Their thinking would be, if you have encountered God, you should know his name.
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Moses needs insider information, and Yahweh complies by revealing the divine secret of his personal name. (Also significant is that it is here that Yahweh provides the most detailed instructions about what Moses should do next.) The Hebrews' question also probes the particular identity of this God. Names in ancient Semitic cultures were not mere labels; they often conveyed a telling message, sometimes highlighting a key characteristic related to the identity of the name-bearer. God discloses an enigmatic answer: "I am who I am…. Thus you shall say to the Israelites, 'I am has sent me to you.'"