WiPa
Wisdom and Proverbs
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Wisdom
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Wisdom literature consists of Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. In ancient Israel the teachers of Yahweh’s way were the priest, the prophet, and the wise man (cf. Jer 18:18; Ezek 7:26). When we enter the world of OT wisdom we enter a world very different from the rest of the OT. There are no references to Israel’s story of salvation or to cultic worship. Its focus is on day-to-day living, not the great saving moments of Israel’s history. Because Wisdom Literature concerns everyday issues that are faced universally and not specific dateable matters, it cannot be tied down to specific dates of composition.
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The Wisdom books of the OT reflect a variety of perspectives. The book of Proverbs represents traditional wisdom, where the wise sages teach students the way of wisdom by contrasting the results that befall the wise and the foolish (or naïve). Job and Ecclesiastes represent protests that qualify the simple application of proverbial teaching. The book of Job shows that the wise do not always get the blessings that the book of Proverbs seems to promise and that you cannot infer a person’s spiritual status on the basis of their circumstances. Ecclesiastes reads like a personal journal reflecting the dissonance between belief in a God who judges and observations on life where the righteous often get what the wicked deserve, and vice versa.
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The wisdom books of the OT form a distinct tributary in the stream of God’s revelation. They contain no references to Mosaic Torah, the Prophets, or to salvation history. For example, they do not mention the exodus, Sinai covenant, David, or Mount Zion. Allusions to prayer, sacrifice, and temple are rare and incidental. The Israelite sages were not reading Moses or the Prophets. Instead, their “canon” was the wisdom literature of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Their theological perspective is also different, focusing on Yahweh as creator, not as Israel’s savior, lawgiver, or prophetic revealer. They reflect a distinctive “denomination,” as it were, within the Old Testament.
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Solomon’s Egyptian Internet and international wisdom. The Old Testament gives several indications that the catalyst behind the wisdom movement during Solomon’s reign lies in his connections with Egypt. Solomon had married Pharaoh’s daughter (1 Kgs 3:1). As a dowry, Pharaoh captured the city of Gezer, which Solomon in turn rebuilt as one of his fortified cities (1 Kgs 9:15–17). Egypt became Solomon trading partner for horses and chariots (1 Kgs 10:28–29). The names of the scribes in Solomon’s court reflect Egypt as their homeland (1 Kgs 4:3, “Elihoreph” is an Egyptian name and “Shisha” is a Hebrew transliteration of an Egyptian title, “the writer of the king’s letters”). Finally, Solomon’s wisdom was considered greater than “the wisdom of all the people of the east, and all the wisdom of Egypt” (1 Kgs 4:30).
Israel’s first king, Saul, was little more than an upgrade from a judge, as he was installed to hold off the military threat from the Philistines. David was more of a warrior-king who established the boundaries of the Israelite kingdom and empire. It was Solomon, the man of “peace,” who was the first to establish commercial and political contacts with other nations of the ancient Near East. As such, he was the first to send official ambassadors to Egypt and other nations. Naturally, these ambassadors would have to learn the language and script of the countries to which they were commissioned. In all likelihood, they learned the language and customs of their host country by reading the standard texts of their wisdom literature. It thus appears that these commercial and political links were the catalyst that instigated the wisdom tradition within the nation of Israel. The Wisdom tradition appears to have a revival during Hezekiah’s reign (see Prov 25:1), who also engaged in political connections with Egypt.
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Within the book of Proverbs itself, the collections of both “Agur … the Massaite” (or “from Massa,” Prov 30:1–33) and “Lemuel, king of Massa” (Prov 31:1–9) derived from foreigners. Massa was a descendant of Ishmael (Gen 25:14; 1 Chr 1:30), whose descendants became a tribe in N. Arabia.
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As for Job, he comes from “the land of Uz” (Job 1:1). If we take our cue from Lamentations 4:21, Uz may lie outside of Israel/Judah in the region of Edom, to the southeast of Judah on the other side of the Dead Sea. Like Solomon, Job was considered “the greatest of all the people of the east” (Job 1:3). Job’s comforters are Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, and Zophar the Naamathite (Job 2:11)—none of whom are Israelite. While the sacred name “Yahweh” is familiar to the story’s narrator, Job and his friends never use it. Rather, they use more generic forms for “God” (Elohim, Eloah, El) or forms that were originally foreign imports, such as Shadday (usually translated “Almighty”). In other words, Job was not an Israelite, nor did he know the name by which he was saved.
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Proverbs
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The Wisdom Literature of the Bible contains some of the most relevant teaching for believers today. It concerns practical, day-to-day living, not the headlines of “salvation history.” Most of us have not walked through the Red Sea like Moses or slaughtered uncivilized Philistines with jawbone of an ass like Samson, but most of us have raised children, understood the value of friendship, and attempted to say the right word at the right time. Wisdom literature is situated in the home and in the marketplace, not at a sacred site or battlefield. The opening chapter of the book of Proverbs tells us plainly, “Wisdom cries out in the street; in the squares she raises her voice. At the busiest corner she cries out; at the entrance of the city gates she speaks” (Prov 1:20–21).
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The biblical wisdom tradition displays a distinct interest in the mundane matters of life—only to show how important they are to God. For example, “A false balance is an abomination to the Lord, but an accurate weight is his delight” (Prov 11:1). Our daily decisions are seen to reflect our heartfelt values, which can bring joy or grief to the living God. Perhaps, second only to the Psalms, the book of Proverbs gives us the most insight into how God interacts with humans in day-to-day living.
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1:1-7 Purpose of the collection
1:8-9:18 The value of wisdom (personified Wisdom's discourses in Prov 1:20-33; 8:1-36 and the contrasting banquets of Wisdom and Folly in Prov 9:1-18)
10:1-22:16 First collection of the proverbs of Solomon
22:17-24:22 Sayings of the wise
24:23-34 Further sayings of the wise
25:1-29:27 Proverbs of Solomon collected by the men of Hezekiah
30:1-33 Words of Agur
31:1-9 Words of Lemuel
31:10-31 The excellent wife
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Theme: The wise seek to teach and persuade people to go out of their death of ignorance and waywardness into life by a proper submission to the wisdom Yahweh has established in the created order.
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The discrete collection, “Sayings of the Wise” (Prov 22:17–24:22), reflects a considerable number of proverbs that parallel in sequence lines from the Egyptian “Instruction of Amenemope.” Dating from between 1250 and 1000 BCE, the Egyptian collection predates Solomon. Most of the “Solomonic” proverbs are declarative sentences (e.g., Prov 10:1), But the “Sayings of the Wise” consists primarily of imperatives, as does the “Instruction of Amenemope.” Prior to the discovery of these parallels, translating Proverbs 22:20 was problematic, even in the original Masoretic Text. The Hebrew word had something to do with the number “three,” which does not seem to make sense within the verse. Hence, the King James Version took the number as symbolic for “excellent”: “Have I not written to thee excellent things?” But more recent translations, recognizing this parallel text, translate the verse says, “Have I not written for you thirty sayings?” (ESV, NIV, NRSV).
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Here is a selection of the parallels, the first of which are drawn from the “Sayings of the Wise” and then from other portions of the book of Proverbs. In addition to treating similar topics in sequence, some also use similar imagery. The book of Proverbs even adopts theological sayings, but of course renders the Egyptian polytheism in terms of Hebrew monotheism.
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How do we come to terms with the fact that much of the OT wisdom literature is paralleled elsewhere in ANE sources? How can biblical wisdom be drawn from “pagan” sources and still be considered Yahweh’s revelation? Most of the Old Testament views Yahweh in special relationship to Israel, whereby he discloses himself to his chosen people as Savior, lawgiver, and prophetic revealer (what theologians call “special revelation”). The sages of the OT wisdom tradition, however, view Yahweh principally as creator, who has embedded his wisdom in the world—in the spheres of both nature and human society. From this perspective wisdom is therefore accessible to everyone (what theologians call “general revelation”). In this respect, while the Israelite scribes may “borrow” wisdom from Egypt and Mesopotamia, everyone in fact is borrowing wisdom from God. Thus, the ultimate source for both international wisdom and uniquely Israelite prophecy is the same. Yahweh’s embedding of wisdom is made plain in several passages in Proverbs. For example, “the Lord by wisdom founded the earth” (Prov 3:19–20). In a unique version of a creation account, Lady Wisdom describes herself as beside Yahweh “as a master worker” (perhaps similar to a foreman) when he established the structures of creation (Prov 8:22–31). One verse compactly portrays the respective tasks of God the revealer and humans the discoverer:
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It is the glory of God to conceal things,
but the glory of kings is to search things out (Prov 25:2)
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In the language of this proverb, it is God who conceals and humans who reveal. Since wisdom was a result of Yahweh’s general creative activity, it could be found outside of Israel and thus legitimately “imported” into Israel’s own traditions.
The best way to elucidate how humans are to discover and reveal God’s wisdom embedded in creation is to examine how the sages constructed proverbs. Here is a familiar proverb:
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A little sleep, a little slumber,
a little folding of the hands to rest,
and poverty will come upon you like a robber,
and want, like an armed warrior (Prov 6:10–11).
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The same proverb is repeated in a later collection, where the sage uniquely speaks autobiographically:
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I passed by the field of one who was lazy,
by the vineyard of a stupid person;
and see, it was all overgrown with thorns;
the ground was covered with nettles,
and its stone wall was broken down.
Then I saw and considered it;
I looked and received instruction.
A little sleep, a little slumber,
a little folding of the hands to rest,
and poverty will come upon you like a robber,
and want, like an armed warrior (Prov 24:30–34).
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This passage discloses not only “what” wisdom the sage teaches but “how” he discovers it. He first observes (“saw, looked”), then reflects (“considered” or literally “set my heart/mind”), and finally articulates his instruction (literally, “I took/received discipline”) in the proverb that follows. In effect, he discovers truth like a social scientist, trying to uncover the cause-effect connection (or what some biblical scholars term the act-consequence connection). Unlike modern scientists, however, they are interested not only in immediate causes, but also in the ultimate cause, namely God himself. Proverbs 11:5 speaks from a social science perspective, while Proverbs 3:33 does so from a theological perspective (discussed further below). Proverbs 13:6 and 22:12 do the same. In this respect, “natural law” and “divine intervention” are parallel realities. (Compare also Prov 2:5–8 and verses 9–11.) In light of these considerations, we may define a proverb as a pithy saying of the wise that derives from attentive observation of the general patterns of life and is given to promote skillful living.
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By raising the genre question we can be clear on what a proverb does and does not do. As a “pithy” verse that reflects a “general” observation, a proverb presents a single perspective, but does not include footnotes admitting qualifications or exceptions. A proverb is a pedagogical tool to enable the child/student to make the right life choices, but it is too much to expect each proverb to express a well-rounded life philosophy. We should be cautious to fault a proverb for being one-sided or naïve to life’s complexities.
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As such, multiple proverbs may qualify each other. Here’s a modern example:
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On the one hand, “many hands make light work.”
On the other, “too many cooks spoil the brew.”
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Here’s a biblical example:
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Don’t answer a fool according to his folly,
lest you also become like him.
Answer fool according to his folly,
lest he be wise in his own eyes (Prov 26:4–5).
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On the surface level, these admonitions sound contradictory, but this side-by-side juxtaposition suggests the wise sages are teasing their students to consider how both provide insights in dealing with a fool. The biblical sages clearly love words, which in isolation can be ambiguous but can also prompt readers to consider their multiple meanings. While the admonitions in the A colon of each verse appear contradictory, the consequences delineated in the B cola act as qualifiers. First, “Don’t react to a fool in like manner to his foolish behavior.” In other words, don’t respond to the fool in kind, or you will behave like him. Second, “Correct a fool in response to his foolish choices.” In other words, expose his foolish reasoning, or he (and others in the community) will think he’s right. (For an NT verse that combines similar advice, see Gal 6:1.)
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Info Box: Christian Liberal Arts Universities
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It is the wisdom tradition in the Old Testament that provides primary biblical justification for Christian liberal arts universities, which attempt to integrate faith and learning. The textbooks set for courses in psychology, the sciences, and business may be authored by non-Christian scholars. But the model of biblical wisdom encourages Christians to consider it a legitimate enterprise to embrace the notion that “all truth is God’s truth” and to incorporate these “secular” observations and insights into Christian faith.
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The phrase, “the fear of Yahweh is the beginning of wisdom,” is familiar and often considered the motto of the book of Proverbs (Prov 9:10; 1:7). But what does it mean? In isolation it might suggest that “the fear of the Lord” is a prerequisite before any acquisition of wisdom is possible. But the observation that the biblical sages incorporated wisdom material from Egypt and Mesopotamia implies that genuine wisdom could be found outside the fear of Yahweh. We should note that this motto is foregrounded in the chapters that introduce the proverbs themselves (Prov 1:7; 9:10), which are generally regarded as the later material. We should also note that among Yahweh’s system of checks and balances, the biblical prophets sometimes criticized the wise sages and scribes of ancient Israel (e.g., Isa 29:14; 31:2; Jer 8:8–9; cf. Isa 19:11–12; 47:10), especially for presumption and pride:
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Ah, you who are wise in your own eyes,
and shrewd in your own sight! (Isa 5:21)
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It would appear that the “wise men,” namely the administrators and scholars of the royal court, could indulge the self-interest of the king and state, and thus succumb to pride. Two passages in the book of Isaiah describe Yahweh’s ideal king. Included in the sevenfold spirit that will rest upon the future son of David is “the spirit wisdom” and “the spirit of … the fear of the Lord” (Isa 11:2). A future king is described as “a storehouse of victories, wisdom and knowledge; the fear the Lord is his treasury” (Isa 33:6, authors translation). On this point Proverbs and the Prophets are in perfect agreement: wisdom must be wedded to the fear of the Lord in order to avoid pride. Thus, the motto “the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom,” should not be regarded as a descriptive, epistemological principle (that wisdom is unobtainable apart from the fear of the Lord) but as a prescriptive, pedagogical procedure. This motto that bookends the chapters introducing the proverbs proper recommends that the pursuit of wisdom should begin with fear of the Lord. The book of Proverbs recommends that students first address the proper attitude of a fearful submission to Yahweh before they consider themselves ready to receive the content of wisdom.
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When the book of Proverbs talks about retribution, blessing for the wise and destruction for the foolish, does it suggest that God has set up a system of “natural law” that enforces these outcomes? Some proverbs affirm there is a clear divide between the fates of the righteous and the wicked (Prov 11:3) and that the self-destruction of the wicked is certain (Prov 26:27). Do they imply that Yahweh has established a form of “laws” that ensure the appropriate consequence for any given action, similar to the natural law of gravity? Once again, we gain insight by comparing scripture with scripture.
The proverbs in the column on the left speak from a social science perspective, while those on the right from a theological perspective. In this respect, “natural law” and “divine intervention” are seen to be parallel realities. The same parallelism can be seen in the introductory section of chapter 2. Unlike the proverbs themselves, which consist of single verses, this entire chapter forms an integrated unit.
The first result clause for attending to wisdom speaks from a religious or theological perspective, thus indicating the ultimate source or cause of the benefits. The second result clause speaks from a psychological or sociological perspective, thus indicating the virtues that will ensure the benefits. A concentration of proverbs focusing on Yahweh’s instrumentality in maintaining the moral order can be found at the beginning of chapter 16 (Prov 16:1–7, 9, 11).