Isaiah’s Vision (Isa 6). Shortly before King Uzziah’s death, Tiglath-pileser III (745-27 BCE) ascended the throne of Assyria and began to transform his localized kingdom into an empire that would stretch across the Fertile Crescent. In anticipation of the impending loss of political independence for both Israel and Judah, Isaiah is given his timely vision of “the Lord sitting upon the throne, exalted and lifted up” (Isa 6:1), whose sovereignty remains independent of political and military powers.

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Because Isaiah 6:1–8:18 is unique within this prophetic book with its repeated use of first-person pronouns (I, me, my, esp. in Isa 6:1–13; 8:1–18), scholars have called it “Isaiah’s memoirs,” which also delimits a distinctive thematic unit. It begins with Isaiah’s extraordinary claims: “I saw the Lord” (Isa 6:1) and “the King, Yahweh of hosts my eyes have seen” (Isa 6:5). One may wonder how this squares with Yahweh’s counterclaim to Moses, “You are unable to see my face, for man cannot see me and live” (Exod 33:20). Isaiah, however, describes no details about God himself but simply “the hem of his robe filling the temple” and the “seraphim standing above.” This vision is a “type scene” of a divine council (cf. 1 Kgs 22:19–23; Pss 82:1–8; 89:5–8; Dan 7:9–10). In such a scene the presider “sits” and his attendants “stand above” the enthroned king. Micaiah’s vision is particularly analogous to Isaiah’s, wherein Yahweh asks the council whom he should send on a mission:

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“I saw Yahweh sitting upon his throne and all the host of heaven standing above him on his right and on his left. And Yahweh said, ‘Who will …?’ … And he said …, ‘Go forth and do so’” (1 Kgs 22:19–20, 22).

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In Isaiah’s vision the Lord asks, “whom shall I send, and who will go for us?,” the “us” referring to the divine council.

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While both visions refer to the attendants as “hosts” (1 Kgs 22:19; Isa 6:3, 5), in Isaiah’s they are identified as “seraphim” or “burning ones.” Given the hints from other passages, they burn, not because they are on fire, but because they are “serpents” whose venom burns (Num 21:6, 8; Deut 8:15). The book of Isaiah elsewhere refers to the “flying serpent” (Isa 14:29; 30:6). In Isaiah’s vision they are apparently hybrid, otherworldly creatures, also sharing human characteristics (cf. Ezek 1:5, 8, 10), such as speech. They call out antiphonally:

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“Holy, holy, holy is Yahweh of hosts,
the fullness of the earth is his glory” (Isa 6:3).

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The threefold acclamation of Yahweh as “holy,” along with description of him as “king” “enthroned” and “exalted” are all terms that echo Psalm 99 (Ps 99:1–5, 9), which would have been sung by the Levitical choirs at the Jerusalem temple. These parallels are suggestive that Isaiah may have experienced this vision, not privately, but during a worship service at the temple, where he would have perceived—beyond the earthly symbols of antiphonal choirs and the “smoke” of sacrifice and incense—Yahweh’s heavenly temple-palace. In Israel and the ancient world the temple was not merely a symbol but a virtual portal to the heavenly court.

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Once Isaiah’s “unclean lips” are “atoned,” Yahweh commissions him to go to “this people” (not my people):

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Hear indeed but don’t understand;
see indeed but don’t perceive.
Make the heart of this people fat,
and their ears make dull
and their eyes smeared,
lest they see with their eyes,
and hear with their ears,
and their heart understand,
and turn and be healed (Isa 6:9-10).

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Yahweh ironically commissions the prophet to a ministry of failure. Troubled, Isaiah’s response is to ask, “How long, O Lord?” Yahweh’s answer: until the exile of the land (Isa 6:11–13).

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Info Box: Ancient Translators Struggling with Theological Tensions

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The Greek translators of the Septuagint apparently tried to soften the theological difficulties. Yahweh’s words shift from prescriptive commands to descriptive statements about the people’s condition.

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‘You will hear by hearing and not understand; and although looking, you will look and not see.’ For the heart of this people has been thickened; and they have heard with difficulty with their ears, and they closed their eyes ⌊lest⌋ they see with their eyes and hear with their ears and understand with their heart and turn, and I will heal them (Lexham English Septuagint).

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Given the repeated calls of Yahweh’s prophets for his people to hear, turn/repent, and experience forgiveness, how can we come to terms with this bizarre assignment? Clearly it is intended to have its shock value, but its resolution we will have to postpone until we consider the entire thematic unit of Isaiah’s memoirs.

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The Aram-Israel Coalition (Isa 7–8). The next scene of his memoirs opens with “the house of David” hearing a rumor of conspiracy between the kingdoms of northern Israel, whose capital was in Samaria, and Aram, whose capital was in Damascus (Isa 7:2, 5–6). They planned to invade Judah, depose its king, Ahaz, and replace him with a puppet king. This plan was likely part of a larger plot to force Judah to join their coalition, so that together they would have a greater chance of freeing themselves from the grips of the Assyrian Empire. Understandably, Ahaz’s “heart … quivered like the trees of the forest quiver before the wind” (Isa 7:2). Through the prophet Yahweh offers him an oracle of salvation that the conspiracy will fail (Isa 7:7–9), but warns him and “the house of David” (Isa 7:2, 13):

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If you (pl.) will not stand firm in faith (ta'aminu),
you (pl.) will not stand firm (te'amenu, Isa 7:9).

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The prophet subtly alerts the king with an important word play on Yahweh’s original promise to David and his “house,” that is, his dynasty:

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“Your house and your kingdom will stand firm (ne'man) before me forever;
your throne will be established forever” (2 Sam 7:16).

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While not made explicit in the original promise, Isaiah clearly sees that the stability of the Davidic dynasty remains contingent on their faith in and faithfulness to Yahweh. To assure him further, Yahweh offers Ahaz “a sign.” The king responds with a seemingly pious answer, but Yahweh perceives his feigned piety (Isa 7:11–12).

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2 Kings 16:5–9 informs us that Ahaz’s response to the Aram-Israel invasion was to appeal directly to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria for rescue by offering to become “your servant,” that is, a vassal to the Assyrian empire. In addition, he sent “a gift/bribe” consisting of silver and gold from the temple and the palace. Tiglath-pileser obliged (2 Kgs 15:29).

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In Isaiah’s memoirs Yahweh warns the prophet:

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“Do not call conspiracy all that this people calls conspiracy, and do not fear what they fear and do not be in dread. Yahweh of hosts—him you shall regard as holy, and he will be your fear and he will be your dread” (Isa 7:12–13).

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Perhaps counterintuitive to our culture, freedom from fear is possible only by fearing Yahweh. Fearing God means fearing nothing else. In this passage we perceive the effect of Isaiah’s vision of Yahweh as “holy.” Seeing Yahweh as “enthroned, exalted, and lifted up” (Isa 6:1) puts the Aram-Israel conspiracy of invasion—and all powers political and military—in true perspective. While the vision was Isaiah’s, its articulation in his memoirs is intended to make this vision of Yahweh above all powers accessible to all who read it. Hence they conclude:

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Bind up the testimony, seal the teaching among my disciples. I will wait for the Lord, who is hiding his face from the house of Jacob, and I will hope in him. See, I and the children whom the Lord has given me are signs and portents in Israel from the Lord of hosts, who dwells on Mount Zion (Isa 8:16–18, NRSV).

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He seals up this testimony as a sign to Israel that they have been duly warned who, in fact, they should fear—not kings and armies, but Yahweh of the heavenly hosts.

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Hardening Hearts. Now that we have surveyed the thematic unit of Isaiah’s memoirs, we can return to the question of Yahweh’s problematic commission to harden the hearts of this people—until the exile. First, the means by which Isaiah hardens hearts is exemplified in king Ahaz. He does not preach doom and gloom, fire and brimstone, but offers him an oracle of salvation contingent on his faith in God. But knowing the recipient’s true character and pretend piety, Yahweh knows that Ahaz will reject his condition and thus his promise. Ahaz—in effect—hardens his heart to God’s offer of help.

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Second, this commission was temporary. The Babylonian exile would mark the pivot in Israel’s ability to “hear, understand, and turn/repent.” This theme of repentance resurfaces in key passages throughout this prophetic book. “An altar call,” so to speak, closing the second section appeals to the exiles in Babylon to return:

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Seek the Lord while he may be found,
call upon him while he is near;
let the wicked forsake their way,
and the unrighteous their thoughts;
let them return to the Lord, that he may have mercy on them,
and to our God, for he will abundantly pardon (Is 55:6–7, NRSV).

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The third section then upholds the promises of salvation made in Isaiah 40–55 and significantly adds the condition of repentance:

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And he will come to Zion as Redeemer,
to those in Jacob who turn from transgression, says the Lord (Is 59:20, NRSV).

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Archaeology confirms that the exile was pivotal for Judah’s attitude towards idolatry and allegiance to Yahweh. During the pre-exilic period there were hundreds of idols found in Israel and Judah. But in the postexilic period where the Jews resettled, virtually no idols have been discovered (see Ephraim Stern, “Pagan Yahwism: The Folk Religion of Ancient Israel,” BAR 27:03 [May/June 2001]).

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A century after Isaiah, Jeremiah said of Jerusalem’s so-called prophets and priests:

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They have healed the wound/break (shever) of my people lightly,
saying, ‘Peace, peace,’
but there is no peace (Jer 6:14).

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As the partial fracture of a bone may need a clean break before it can be reset and casted, it would seem that Yahweh’s commission of Isaiah looks beyond superficial repentance and “Band-Aid” solutions to a more systemic restoration of the people of God.

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Messiah (Isa 9; 11). Linked by catchwords to Isaiah’s Memoirs (“teaching and testimony,” Isa 8:16 and 8:20, and the reversal of “darkness” and dawn, Isa 8:20, 22 and 9:2) but likely from some decades later, the addition of Isaiah 9 gives Judah hope for a new “David,” who will indeed exemplify the characteristics of Yahweh’s king. It is important to note that the book of Isaiah gives no indication that this promise of a new David is prompted by a change in the behavior of the people of God. It would seem that, after the recorded failure of Ahaz and David’s house, Yahweh graciously decrees a restoration of the Davidic monarchy on his own initiative, not because he is legally obliged.

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The tribal territories of northern Israel that Tiglath-pileser III had annexed (cf. Isa 9:1 and 2 Kgs 15:29) in response to King Ahaz’s appeal for help (2 Kgs 19:5–9) are now given hope of glory and light in the form of a new Davidic king (Isa 9:1–7). The historical sequence of this passage points to Hezekiah as this new king. 2 Chronicles 30:1–11 confirms that Hezekiah had invited these northern territories to join the kingdom of Judah in celebration of Passover in Jerusalem. Isaiah’s oracle for the king’s coronation is phrased in Hebrew as a completed event:

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For a child has been born to us,
a son has been given to us;
and the dominion has been upon his shoulder.
And his name has been called,
Wonder-Counselor, God-Warrior,
Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.
Of the increase of his dominion and peace
there will be no end,
upon David’s throne and over his kingdom,
to establish it and support it
with justice and righteousness
from now to remote time.
The zeal of Yahweh of hosts will do this (Isa 9:6–7).

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Although Christians typically associate these verses with Jesus Christ (encouraged by Handel’s “Messiah”), there is nothing in the language of this oracle that would be inappropriate for a human king of the Davidic dynasty (cf. Ps 2:7–8; 110:3; 89:19–29). As just noted, the primary audience for this message of hope, “the people walking in darkness,” live in the territories of northern Israel that were decimated by Tiglath-pileser III in the eighth century BCE.

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Hezekiah was indeed a Davidic king celebrated in the Deuteronomistic history of 2 Kings (esp. 2 Kgs 18:1–9): “Yahweh was with him. Wherever he went out, he was successful. He rebelled against the king of Assyria and would not serve him” (2 Kgs 18:7). For a time at least, he fulfilled Isaiah’s promise by breaking “the yoke” of the Assyrian oppressor (Isa 9:3–5), whose army beat a hasty retreat home after they were “struck down” (2 Kgs 19:35–36). But in the end Hezekiah fell short of expectations in the views of both the Deuteronomistic historian (2 Kgs 20:12–19) and Isaiah himself (on Isa 28–33 see below).

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As a result, Isaiah records another prophecy of a new David (Isa 11:1–6):

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And a shoot shall come forth from the stump of Jesse,
and a branch from his roots will bear fruit.

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Presupposed in this good news is the bad news that David’s family tree will be cut down. This “stump” may allude to the heavy territorial and monetary losses that Hezekiah ultimately incurred in 701 BCE when he rebelled against Assyria (2 Kgs 18:13–16). Another possible explanation for “the stump of Jesse” would be the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. In any case, Yahweh sevenfold “spirit” will rest upon some future, undisclosed Davidic “branch” (Isa 11:2; cf. Jer 23:5–6 = 33:15–16), whose reign will exemplify the “righteousness” and “justice” that should typify Davidic monarchs (Isa 11:3–5; 9:7; Jer 22:3, 15 23:5–6). Although a king typically “judges by” the evidence that “his eyes see” and by the testimony that “his ears hear”—both of which can be falsified—this king will judge by the superior sense: “and his smelling will be in the fear of Yahweh” (Isa 11:3, literally). He will indeed “smell out” the truth.

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Phase 3: Oracles against the Nations (Isa 13–23)

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The “oracles against the nations” in Isaiah 13–23 evidently form a generic collection (i.e., based on literary genre), not one based on historical chronology. The point of these oracles against the nations is, of course, not to forecast tomorrow’s “headlines” today, but to assure the people of Jerusalem that Yahweh ultimately reigns over the nations and will maintain his justice on behalf of his people. It is difficult for most modern readers to appreciate these assurances without sharing Judah’s experience of living under constant threat at the crossroads of neighboring nations and the superpowers of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

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Ashdod Coalition against Assyria. Several of these oracles are linked to a second coalition of rebellion against the Assyrian Empire that arose 20 years later, this time instigated by the Philistine city of Ashdod (713–711 BCE, Isa 20:1–6). Its attempts were encouraged by the promise of Egyptian military support, whose 25th Dynasty at this time was Cushite (i.e., the people from Lower Egypt near modern-day Ethiopia). Both the Philistines and the Egyptians/Cushites sent ambassadors to persuade Hezekiah and the kingdom of Judah to join (Isa 14:28–32; 18:1–2). To grab the attention of his audience he engages in the symbolic act of “walking naked and barefoot” like a war captive, in order to illustrate the fate of those who put their trust in such political alliances against the Assyrian machinery (Isa 20:2–6).

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By contrast, Isaiah preaches that Judah’s trust should lie in Yahweh, whose sanctuary rests on the sacred mountain of Zion:

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What will one answer the messengers of the nation [Philistia]?
“The Lord has founded Zion,
and the needy among his people
will find refuge in her” (Isa 14:32, NRSV).

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At that time gifts will be brought to the Lord of hosts from a people tall and smooth, from a people feared near and far, a nation mighty and conquering, whose land the rivers divide, to Mount Zion, the place of the name of the Lord of hosts (Isa 18:7, NRSV).

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Isaiah’s stance vis-à-vis political alliances is spelled out more fully in the fourth phase of his ministry, but here we may note that the first priority of God’s people should be to await Yahweh signal, when he will prune the Assyrian empire to size (Isa 18:3–6).

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Other oracles can be linked to other events of Isaiah’s lifetime. Isaiah 17:1–14 is a judgment oracle on the Aram-Israel coalition (735–733 BCE), discussed above with Isaiah’s memoirs. Isaiah 14:24–27 announces Yahweh’s plans “to break the Assyrian in my land,” perhaps related to Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 BCE (discussed in the next section below).

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Oracles against Babylon (Isa 13:1–22; 14:1–23; 21:1–10). Yahweh’s judgment on Babylon make sense in view their later destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE and exile of the Judahite population. Indeed, Isaiah 14:1–2 links the Israelites’ return to their homeland with Babylon’s overthrow. The reader should be mindful, however, that in Isaiah’s day Assyria was the superpower and Babylon was merely one of their vassals, along with Judah. Therefore, most scholars would date these oracles later to the period of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BCE). The agents of Babylon’s destruction are identified as the Medes (Isa 13:17; 21:2), whose fierceness became known in their participation in the destruction of the Assyrian cities of Asshur (614 BCE) and Nineveh (612 BCE). The Medes, however, were later conquered by the Persian king Cyrus (550 BCE), who then took Babylon without a battle (539 BCE). The utter abandonment of Babylon as described in Isaiah 13:18–22 did not take place until after the death of Alexander the Great (323 BCE).

 

 

Phase 4: Hezekiah’s alliance with Egypt against Assyria (Isa 28–33; 36–37)

Isaiah 28–33. Linking the oracles in Isaiah 28–33 is the introductory formula “alas/woe” (Isa 28:1; 29:1, 15; 30:1; 31:1; 33:1)—a cry of lament originating in funeral ceremonies (1 Kgs 13:30; Jer 22:18; 34:5). As in the previous collection, not all of these oracles pertain to the same historical situation (e.g., Isa 28:1–6 likely relates to the earlier Aram-Israel coalition of 735–733 BCE).

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Most reflect the fourth phase of Isaiah’s ministry focused on third coalition of rebellion against the Assyrian Empire, but this time the king of Judah, Hezekiah, was its champion. After the death of Sargon II in 705 BCE, widespread rebellion erupted throughout the Assyrian Empire. This was the opportune moment when the succession of power could be contested by rival princes and generals. Even if the transition were smooth, the new king would lack experience and the proven trust of all his officials. It would be four years before the Assyrian successor, Sennacherib, campaigned in the West to recover the rebellious provinces.

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Key to Hezekiah’s coalition was an alliance with Egypt. Although Hezekiah is not named in any of Isaiah’s oracles (indeed “Hezekiah” appears only in the book’s superscript, Isa 1:1, and in the chapters lifted from the Deuteronomistic history, Isa 36–39), the prophet pronounces “the word of Yahweh” that soundly condemns “the rulers of this people in Jerusalem” for engaging in a “treaty” (28:14-15, 18; 30.1) with “Egypt” in order to improve their chances of rebelling against Assyria (see esp. Isa 30:1–3; 31:1–5). He faults this alliance for three reasons. (a) It is impractical (“Egypt’s help is worthless and empty,” Isa 30:7). (b) It is presumptuous, ignoring Judah’s theological priorities (“without asking for my counsel,” Isa 30:2, and they “do not look to the Holy One of Israel or enquire of Yahweh,” Isa 31:1). (c) It lacks vision of the God of Zion (“Yahweh of hosts will … fight upon Mt. Zion and … shield Jerusalem,” Isa 31:4-5).

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Like a repeat from Isaiah’s memoirs (Isa 8:16–18), the prophet is instructed:

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Now go, write it upon a tablet,
and upon a scroll inscribe it,
so it may become for the latter day a witness forever (Isa 30:8).

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As before, he recognizes that his audience refuses his prophetic counsel, calling them “rebellious people” and “lying children” (Isa 30:9–11). Considering that Hezekiah must be counted among those who rejected Isaiah’s oracles, Isaiah 28–33 certainly provides an opposing perspective on this king who is so celebrated in the Deuteronomistic History (esp. 2 Kgs 18:3–7).

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Isaiah 36–39. Additional Isaianic oracles have been transplanted to Isaiah 36–39 from the Deuteronomistic History (2 Kgs 18:13–20:19). To the Deuteronomistic material, Isaiah 38:9–20 adds a prayer of Hezekiah, but significantly Isaiah 36–39 omits the negative report in 2 Kgs 18:14–16, which records Hezekiah’s apology, submission, and payment of tribute to Sennacherib. Given the parallel in the book of Jeremiah, where a selection from the Deuteronomistic History (2 Kgs 24:18-25:30) is appended to the prophet’s own oracles (in Jer 52:1-34; note “Thus far are the words of Jeremiah,” Jer 51:64), it is likely that an earlier edition of the book of Isaiah concluded here and did not include Isaiah 40–66, which is addressed to later generations.

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The Isaianic oracles contained in this appendix promise deliverance at the eleventh hour, as Sennacherib’s forces threaten the city of Jerusalem (Isa 36:6–7 = 2 Kgs 19:6–7; Isa 37:21–35 = 2 Kgs 19:20–34; also perhaps Isa 29:1–8). Yahweh assures the city:

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“Therefore thus says the Lord concerning the king of Assyria: He shall not come into this city, shoot an arrow there, come before it with a shield, or cast up a siege ramp against it. By the way that he came, by the same he shall return; he shall not come into this city, says the Lord. For I will defend this city to save it, for my own sake and for the sake of my servant David” (Isa 37:33–35, NRSV).

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Canonical and Theological Contribution

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The most profound imprint of Isaiah 1–39 stems from his vision of “the Holy One of Israel.” Seeing Yahweh results in seeing nothing else quite the same. Fearing Yahweh means fearing no other power. Although the shadow of Assyria may darken the life of the people of God, Isaiah offers them a transcending vision of a higher power.

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A comparison of the traditions that surface in the eighth-century prophets reveals some significant differences between northern Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah. Both Amos and Hosea refer to the early narrative traditions of the exodus, wilderness, and the conquest period—also foregrounded in the Pentateuch. Hosea includes the Sinai covenant as well. Isaiah, on the other hand, makes no reference to these Moses traditions. Instead, he foregrounds the two traditions native to his own Jerusalem. The Zion tradition affirms this local mountain as Yahweh’s sacred mountain. As he dwells in Zion, he will protect it. The David tradition affirms his choice of this dynasty, by which he will establish righteousness and justice.

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We would greatly misunderstand Isaiah, however, if we took him to be an establishment prophet. His vision of Yahweh made that impossible. The institutions of the elite would always be subject to the critique of the higher Sovereign. While his later prophecies (Isa 36–37) affirm the inviolability of Zion, his earlier prophecies consistently fault the people and their leaders for failing to trust the God of Zion and for choosing the political expedient. His model portraits of the messianic David brought to light the shortcomings of his contemporary Davidic kings. Without trust in Yahweh of hosts, their institutions of government and religion would do them little good. Yahweh values faith in him over political powers, and the practice of justice over mere religious ritual.

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Micah

(Coming soon)